## Saturday, June 22, 2019

### Evaluating Expressions in CPLEX

There's a feature in the Java API for CPLEX (and in the C++ and C APIs; I'm not sure about the others) that I don't see mentioned very often, possibly because use cases may not arise all that frequently. It became relevant in a recent email exchange, though, so I thought I'd highlight it. As usual, I describe it in the context of Java and let users of other APIs figure out the corresponding syntax.

Anyone who uses CPLEX knows how to use IloCplex.getValue() or IloCplex.getValues() to retrieve the values of the model variables in the final solution. What might fly under the radar is that there is an overload that takes as an argument an expression involving the variables (an instance of IloNumExpr), evaluates that expression, and returns the value. This is more a convenience than an essential feature: armed with the variable values, you could presumably compute the expression value yourself. The convenience aspects are not trivial though. Using getValue() to evaluate an expression saves you having to retrieve coefficients from someplace and likely run through a loop each time you evaluate the expression. (You do have to create the expression and store a pointer to it, but you do that once.) Also, if the only reason you need the variable values is to evaluate the expression, it saves you having to use getValue() to get the variable values.

Where might you use this? It's possible to use it to compute slacks for cuts you generate somewhere. (Use it to evaluate the cut expression, then subtract the relevant bound on the cut inequality and you have the slack.) It's also possible to use it to track secondary criteria or objectives that you did not build into the model. I cobbled together some code to demonstrate the latter use, which is now available from my campus GitLab repository. The underlying problem comes from an old post by Erwin Kalvelagen ("Minimizing Standard Deviation"). It involves loading pallets and minimizing the standard deviation of the pallet loads. Let $p$ be the vector of pallet loads and $\mu$ the mean load per pallet. My code creates expressions for both $\parallel p-(\mu,\dots,\mu)\parallel_{1}$ and $\parallel p-(\mu,\dots,\mu)\parallel_{2}^{2}$, minimizes the $L_1$ norm (which is computationally easier than minimizing the $L_2$ norm), and evaluates for each newly found solution (in an incumbent callback) and for the final solution.

The use in a callback brings up an important point. There are getValue() methods in several classes, and you need to be a bit careful about which one you are using. IloCplex.getValue() evaluates the expression using the final solution, and will generate error 1217 (no solution exists) if you try to use before the solver is done. That in particular means you cannot use it in a callback. Fortunately, the relevant callbacks have their own versions. IloCplex.LazyConstraintCallback.getValue() and IloCplex.IncumbentCallback.getValue() evaluate expressions using the new candidate and accepted integer-feasible solution, respectively. Other callbacks (solve, branch, user cut) evaluate using the solution to the LP relaxation. To use any of them, call this.getValue(...) or just getValue(...). Do not call mip.getValue(...) inside a callback, where mip is the problem you are solving: that will invoke IloCplex.getValue() and trigger the aforementioned error.

Note that there are also getSlack() and getSlacks() methods for computing the slack in a constraint. The former takes a single instance of IloRange as argument and the latter takes a vector of IloRange instances. Like getValue(), there are separate versions in IloCplex and in the callback classes. I assume they behave the same way that getValue does, but I have not actually checked that.

Finally, if you have switched to generic callbacks, there is good news. The IloCplex.Callback.Context class (the class used by the argument to your callback function) has getCandidateValue(), getIncumbentValue() and getRelaxationValue() for evaluating expressions based on a proposed new integer-feasible solution, the current best integer-feasible solution and the current node LP solution, respectively. (IloCplex.getValue() remains as it was.) Not only can you do the same evaluations, but the method names are utterly unambiguous. Gotta love that!

## Sunday, June 16, 2019

### R v. Python

A couple of days ago, I was having a conversation with someone that touched on the curriculum for a masters program in analytics. One thing that struck me was requirement of one semester each of R and Python programming. On the one hand, I can see a couple of reasons for requiring both: some jobs will require the worker to deal with both kinds of code; and even if you're headed to a job where one of them suffices, you don't know which one it will be while you're in the program. On the other hand, I tend to think that most people can get by nicely with just one or the other (in my case R), if not neither. Also, once you've learned an interpreted language (plus the general concepts of programming), I tend to think you can learn another one on your own if you need it. (This will not, however, get you hired if proficiency in the one you don't know is an up-front requirement.)

I don't really intend to argue the merits of requiring one v. both here, nor the issue of whether a one-semester deep understanding of two languages is as good as a two-semester deep understanding of one language. Purely by coincidence, that conversation was followed by my discovering R vs. Python for Data Science, a point-by-point comparison of the two by Norm Matloff (a computer science professor at UC Davis). If you are interested in data science and trying to decide which one to learn (or which to learn first), I think Matloff's comparison provides some very useful information. With the exception of "Language unity", I'm inclined to agree with his ratings.

Matloff calls language unity a "horrible loss" for R, emphasizing a dichotomy between conventional/traditional R and the so-called "Tidyverse" (which is actually a set of packages). At the same time, he calls the transition form Python 2.7 to 3.x "nothing too elaborate". Personally, I use Tidyverse packages when it suits me and not when it doesn't. There's a bit of work involved in learning each new Tidyverse package, but that's not different from learning any other package. He mentions tibbles and pipes. Since a tibble is a subclass of a data frame, I can (and often do) ignore the differences and just treat them as data frames. As far as pipes go, they're not exactly a Tidyverse creation. The Tidyverse packages load the magrittr package to get pipes, but I think that package predates the Tidyverse, and I use it with "ordinary" R code. Matloff also says that "... the Tidyverse should be considered advanced R, not for beginners." If I were teaching an intro to R course, I think I would introduce the Tidyverse stuff early, because it imposes some consistency on the outputs of R functions that is sorely lacking in base R. (If you've done much programming in R, you've probably had more than a few "why the hell did it do that??" moments, such as getting a vector output when you expected a scalar or vice versa.) Meanwhile, I've seen issues with software that bundled Python scripts (and maybe libraries), for instance because users who came to Python recently and have only ever installed 3.x discover that the bundled scripts require 2.x (or vice versa).

Anyway, that one section aside (where I think Matloff and I can agree to disagree), the comparison is quite cogent, and makes for good reading.

## Friday, June 14, 2019

### A Java Container for Parameters

A few days ago, I posted about a Swing class (and supporting stuff) that I developed to facilitate my own computations research, and which I have now made open-source in a Bitbucket repository. I finally got around to cleaning up another Java utility class I wrote, and which I use regularly in experiments. I call it ParameterBlock. It is designed to be a container for various parameters that I need to set during experiments.

It might be easiest if I start with a couple of screen shots. The first one shows a Swing application I was using in a recent project. Specifically, it shows the "Settings" menu, which has multiple entries corresponding to different computational stages (the overall solver, an initial heuristic, two phases of post-heuristic number crunching), along with options to save and load settings.

Computational research can involve a ton of choices for various parameters. CPLEX alone has what seems to be an uncountable number of them. In the Dark Ages, I hard-coded parameters, which meant searching the source code (and recompiling) every time I wanted to change one. Later I graduated to putting them on the command line, but that gets old quickly if there are more than just a handful. When I started writing simple Swing platforms for my work (like the one shown above), I added menu options to call up dialogs that would let me see the current settings and change them. Over time, this led me to my current solution.

I put each collection of parameters in a separate subclass of the (abstract) ParameterBlock class. So clicking on "Solver" would access on subclass, clicking on "Heuristic" would access a different subclass, and so on. A parameter block can contain parameters of any types. The next shot shows a dialog for the solver parameters in my application. Two of the parameters are boolean (and have check boxes), two are Java enumerations (and have radio button groups), and three are numeric (and have text fields). String parameters are also fine (handled by text boxes).

Defining a parameter block is easy (in my opinion). It pretty much boils down to deciding how many parameters you are going to have, assigning a symbolic name to each (so that in other parts of the code you can refer to "DOMINANCE" and not need to remember if it parameter 1, parameter 2 or whatever), giving each one a label (for dialogs), a type (such as boolean.class or double.class), a default value and a tool tip. The ParameterBlock class contains a static method for generating a dialog like the one below, and one or two other useful methods.

 Solver parameters

You can more details in the README file at the Bitbucket repository I set up for this. The repository contains a small example for demonstration purposes, but to use it you just need to copy ParameterBlock.java into your application. As usual, I'm releasing it under a Creative Commons license. Hopefully someone besides me will find it useful.

## Tuesday, June 11, 2019

### A Swing Platform for Computational Experiments

Most of my research involves coding algorithms and running computational experiments with them. It also involves lots of trial-and-error, both with the algorithms themselves and with assorted parameters that govern their functioning. Back in the Dark Ages, I did all this with programs that ran at a command prompt (or, in Linux terms, in a terminal) and wrote any output to the terminal. Eventually I got hip and started writing simple GUI applications for those experiments. A GUI application lets me load different problem without having to stop and restart the program, lets me change parameter settings visually (without having to screw around with lots of command line options ... is the switch for using antisymmetry constraints -A or -a?), and save output to text files when it's helpful.

Since I code (mostly) in Java, the natural way to do this is with a Swing application. (When I use R, I typically use an R notebook.) Since there are certain features I always want, I found myself copying code from old projects and then cutting out the project-specific stuff and adding new stuff, which is a bit inefficient. So I finally got around to creating a minimal template version of the application, which I'm calling "XFrame" (short for "Experimental JFrame" or "JFrame for Experiments" or something).

I just uploaded it to Bitbucket, where it is open-source under a very nonrestrictive Creative Commons license. Feel free to download it if you want to try it. There's an issue tracker where you can report any bugs or sorely missing features (but keep in mind I'm taking a fairly minimalist approach here).

Using it is pretty simple. The main package (xframe) contains two classes and an interface. You can just plop them into your application somewhere. One class (CustomOutputStream) you will probably not want to change. The actual GUI is the XFrame class. You will want to add menu items (the only one it comes with is File > Exit) and other logic. Feel free to change the class name as well if you wish. Finally, your program needs to implement the interface defined in XFrameController so that XFrame knows how to talk to the program.

The layout contains a window title at the top and a status message area at the bottom, both of which can be fetched and changed by code. The central area is a scrollable text area where the program can write output. It has buttons to save the content and to clear it, and the program will not exit with unsaved text unless you explicitly bless the operation.

There is a function that lets the program open nonmodal, scrollable dialog (which can be left open while the main window is in use, and whose content can be saved to a file). Another function allows the program to pop up modal dialogs (typically warnings or error messages). Yet another function provides a place where you can insert logic to tell the GUI when to enable/disable menu choices (and maybe other things). Finally, there is a built-in extension of SwingWorker that lets you launch a computational operation in a separate thread (where it will not slow down or freeze the GUI).

I included a small "Hello world!" application to show it works. I'll end with a couple of screen shots, one of the main window and the other of the nonmodal dialog (both from the demo). If it looks like something you might want to use, please head over to Bitbucket and grab the source.

 Main window
 Nonmodal dialog

## Monday, June 10, 2019

### Indicator Constraints v. Big M

Way, way back I did a couple of posts related to how to model "logical indicators" (true/false values that control enforcement of constraints):

• #### Indicator Implies Relation

The topic ties in to the general issue of "big M" model formulations. Somewhere around version 10, CPLEX introduced what they call indicator constraints, which are essentially implications of the form "if constraint 1 holds, then constraint 2 holds". As an example, if $a$ and $b$ are vector respectively scalar parameters, $x$ is a binary variable and $y$ is a vector of real variables, you might use an indicator constraint to express $x=1 \implies a'y\le b$.

That same constraint, in a "big M" formulation, would look like $a'y \le b + M(1-x)$. Using an indicator constraint saves you having to make a careful choice of the value of $M$ and avoids certain numerical complications. So should you always use indicator constraints? It's not that simple. Although "big M" formulations are notorious for having weak relaxations, indicator constraints can also result in weak (possibly weaker) relaxations.

For more details, I'll refer you to a question on the new Operations Research Stack Exchange site, and in particular to an answer containing information provided by Dr. Ed Klotz of IBM. My take is that this remains one of those "try it and see" kinds of questions.

## Saturday, June 1, 2019

### Naming CPLEX Objects

A CPLEX user recently asked the following question on a user forum: "Is there a way to print the constraints as interpreted by CPLEX immediately after adding these constraints using addEq, addLe etc." The context for a question like this is often an attempt to debug either a model or the code creating the model. Other users in the past have indicated difficulty in parsing models after exporting them to a text (LP format) file, because they cannot associate the variable names and constraint names assigned by CPLEX to the variables and constraints in their mathematical models. For example, here is part of a simple set covering model created in Java using CPLEX 12.9 and exported to an LP file:

Minimize
obj: x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
Subject To
c1: x1 + x4 >= 1
c2: x1 + x3 + x4 >= 1
c3: x2 + x5 >= 1


Assume that the decisions relate to possible locations for depots. The text is perfectly legible, but is "x4" the decision to put a depot in "San Jose" or the decision to put a depot in "Detroit"? Is constraint "c1" the requirement to have a depot near central Ohio or the requirement to have a depot near the metro New York area?

Assigning meaningful names to variables and constraints is easy. In the Java and C++ APIs (and, I assume, the others), the functions that create variables and constraints have optional string arguments for names. Let's say that I create my variables and my constraints inside loops, both indexed by a variable i. I just need to change
mip.boolVar()
and
mip.addGe(sum, 1)
(where sum is an expression calculated inside the loop) to
mip.boolVar(vnames[i]);
and
mip.addGe(sum, 1, cnames[i]);
where vnames[] and cnames[] are string arrays containing the names I want to use for variables and constraints, respectively. the previous model fragment now looks like the following:
Minimize
obj: Pittsburgh + San_Jose + Newark + Detroit + Fresno
Subject To
Central_Ohio: Pittsburgh + Detroit >= 1
Metro_NY:     Pittsburgh + Newark + Detroit >= 1
SF_Oakland:   San_Jose + Fresno >= 1
This version is much more useful when either explaining the model (to someone else) or looking for problems with it. (Just don't look for any geographic logic in the example.)

Note the use of underscores, rather than spaces, in the names. CPLEX has some rules about what is syntactically a legitimate name in an LP file, and if you violate those rules, CPLEX with futz with your names and add index numbers to them. So "San Jose" might become "San_Jose#2", and "SF/Oakland" would turn into something at least as silly.

That's part of the battle. The question I cited asks how to print out constraints as they arise. The key there is that the various constraint constructors (IloCplex.ge(), IloCplex.addGe(), IloCplex.le(), IloCplex.addLe(), IloCplex.eq(), IloCplex.addEq(), ...) return a pointer to the constraint they construct. If you pass that pointer to a print statement, you print the constraint. Extending my example, I will tweak the constraint construction a bit, to
IloRange newConstraint = mip.addGe(sum, 1, cnames[i]);
System.out.println(newConstraint);
which creates the cover constraint, adds it to the model and then prints it. That results in output lines like this:
IloRange Central_Ohio : 1.0 <= (1.0*Detroit + 1.0*Pittsburgh) <= infinity

One last observation: If you want to print the entire model out, you do not need to save it to an LP file. Just pass the model (IloCplex object) to a print statement. If I execute
System.out.println(mip);
after the model is complete, I get this:
IloModel  {
IloMinimize  : (1.0*San_Jose + 1.0*Detroit + 1.0*Pittsburgh + 1.0*Newark + 1.0*Fresno)
IloRange Central_Ohio : 1.0 <= (1.0*San_Jose + 1.0*Pittsburgh) <= infinity
IloRange Metro_NY : 1.0 <= (1.0*Pittsburgh + 1.0*Fresno) <= infinity
IloRange SF_Oakland : 1.0 <= (1.0*Detroit + 1.0*Fresno) <= infinity

}
It is not entirely complete (you don't see the declarations of the variables as binary), but it is arguably enough for most model debugging.